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See following: than 20% flberts of a different type (round shaped Size Round-type Long-type Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum in anxiety symptoms palpitations purchase cheap phenergan online. All hazelnuts must contain less than 12% moisture Sizing or screening is used to specify market size and kernels not more than 7% moisture anxiety symptoms associated with ptsd order online phenergan, and in 2 mm increments from 22 mm to 14 mm or foreign material may not exceed 0 anxiety uti cheap phenergan 25 mg on line. Total tolerances for variety and/or type anxiety while sleeping buy phenergan 25 mg amex, and a size tolerance by weight defects are 16 to 18% if the lot is specifed as of 5% is allowed for rounded types and 10% for "Old Crop anxiety symptoms in head order phenergan canada. Not included in the total tolerance is that not more than 8% may Extra hazelnut kernels must be of superior be twin hazelnuts anxiety symptoms vomiting order phenergan uk. During storage hazelnuts produce very low producing afatoxin, has been isolated from levels of ethylene. Reduction of in-shell moisture content to below 10% and nutmeat moisture content to less than 6% Respiration Rates is an effective means of deterring mold growth. It appears to be caused by an oxidation process that occurs on the pellicle only and may or may not be associated Quarantine Issues with moldy kernels (Thompson et al. To prevent spread of eastern flbert blight Twin kernels occur when two kernels develop (Anisogramma anomala), all trees, plants, within one nut shell, and is an undesirable trait cuttings, and scions of all species and varieties because of the small size and irregular shape of of the wild and cultivated flbert or hazelnut, affected kernels. Owing territories of Canada east of and including the to the alternate bearing cycles for hazelnuts, province of Alberta. Special Considerations Hazelnuts marketed in-shell should be sampled Postharvest Pathology periodically to assess nutmeat quality. Although the most common nut causing allergy in children the most common decay found in hazelnuts and adults is peanut, hazelnuts may also be an is molds, with Romularia spp. The health benefts of temperature and duration interact to decrease eating hazelnuts: implications for blood lipid shelf-life with increasing roasting temperature profles, coronary heart disease and cancer risks. Effects of storage temperature, kernel intactness and roasting temperature on vitamin E, fatty acids and peroxide value of hazelnuts. Clinical study of peanut and nut allergy in 62 consecutive patients: new features and associations. Recommended harvest interval for Cavaletto is with the Department of Tropical Plant ground-harvested nuts is 1 mo. Damage by the and Soil Science, University of Hawaii at Manoa, tropical nut borer (Hypothenemus obscurus [F. Hawaii, Central and South America, and parts of the minimum export grade for shelled nuts is Africa. There are also standards for in-shell spherical in shape, and free of blemishes, nuts and for roasted kernels. Shelled nuts are rancidity, mold, decay, insect damage, extraneous usually packaged in 11. Larger nitrogen-fushed kernels should contain 72% oil; the highest containers are sometimes used. Oil content is a major quality Optimum Storage Conditions factor that varies with cultivar and maturity and is inversely related to sugar content (Ripperton et al. Freshly fallen nuts contain about 25% kernel moisture, although nuts that have remained Horticultural Maturity Indices on the ground for extended periods may have as little as 10 to 15% moisture. Physiological Disorders Quarantine Issues Nuts that fail to develop properly will produce There are no signifcant quarantine issues. If too immature, kernels insects such as almond moth (Ephestia cautella), are very small and become hard upon drying. Likewise, roasted kernels must be well protected from moisture to ensure preservation of texture and favor. Effect of drying temperature on chemical composition and quality of macadamia nuts. Moisture content for in-shell Maness is with the Department of Horticulture peanuts should be <10% to prevent mold growth and Landscape Architecture, Oklahoma State (Diener and Davis 1977). Seed may be stored at ambient temperature for up to 11 years with Arachis hypogaea L. Peanuts marketed without subspecies are grown commercially, and four seedcoats (blanched) should have an ivory-colored market types are of greatest economic importance. Fatty acid composition of the edible portion is a seed which develops peanut oil is predominantly oleic and linoleic underground inside a pod containing two to four acids, found in roughly equal amounts and making seeds. Certain genotypes are now cultivated worldwide, with the majority may contain substantially more oleic than linoleic of production in India, Asia, and the United acid, with ratios as high as 40:1 (oleic:linoleic). Assessment of peanut maturity meet market type, be free of misshapen or should be conducted using multiple plants at underdeveloped kernels, and be free of any shell 757 Table 1. Runner peanut maturity can be determined by a hull-scrape method, in which maturity profles for Optimum Storage Conditions samples are estimated based on degree of change in pod mesocarp from white to brown to black In-shell farmers-stock peanuts should be dried (Williams and Drexler 1981). Grades, Sizes, and Packaging High losses in milling quality may occur if peanuts are dried to below 7% moisture or if U. A comparison of tolerances as provided by the Adequate ventilation in a warehouse storage American Peanut Shellers Association ffcial facility, preferably providing one air change every Trade Rules for shelled peanuts based primarily 3 min, is also desirable to prevent excess moisture on size, peanuts of other types, amount of split or and heat from accumulating in the storage facility broken kernels, freedom from foreign material, (Smith and Davidson 1982). Lots imported into the ppb (nL L United States may be designated "segregation 1" or "segregation 2" depending on degree of kernel 763 Controlled Atmosphere Considerations storage. Nondormant 2 rancid favor development and insect infestation peanuts exhibit a climacteric-like rise in ethylene (Slay et al. For Properly cured peanuts in storage exhibit a longer-term storage of high-moisture, shelled relatively low rate of respiration. During harvest peanuts under ambient temperature conditions, and prior to curing, especially for high-moisture <1. Retail Outlet Display Considerations Peanuts are normally marketed at ambient Physiological Disorders temperature. Improper curing of peanuts results in loss of Prior to or during harvest and prior to postharvest quality and off-favor development. This windrowed (Singleton and Pattee 1991) or by too was accompanied by increased seed leachate, high a temperature during curing (Sanders et al. Following postharvest drying and during storage, peanuts do not appear to be sensitive to chilling and may be stored at or below freezing. The and temperature during pod maturation and 764 presence of toxic fungal metabolites (mycotoxins) virus. The name "afatoxin" be labeled with a positive lot identifcation and refers to four metabolites found in contaminated must meet the requirements for segregation 1 peanuts and designated afatoxin B1, B2, G1, peanuts if used for human consumption. A ffth mycotoxin, cyclopiazonic acid, is Such peanuts may be blanched and reseparated somewhat less toxic than afatoxin and is produced into afatoxin-negative lots, which may be used for by Aspergillus favus, other Aspergillus species, edible purposes. Special Considerations Preharvest conditions favoring afatoxin contamination are high temperatures and Peanuts are a major allergenic food among adults drought stress during the last 3 to 6 weeks of and children in the United States (Taylor 1992). Late Allergen activity has been identifed for at least season irrigation may be effective in reducing six allergens by phage display technology and is afatoxin contamination (Dorner et al. Allergens may also free of contamination with only a few highly be present in refned peanut oil (Olszewski et al. Conveyors, cleaners, sizers, and Storage conditions to deter growth of the causal other handling equipment should be padded organisms and subsequent metabolic production where appropriate and properly maintained to of the mycotoxins primarily involve prevention prevent excessive breakage during handling. Decontamination Once shelled and roasted, peanuts should be of contaminated lots is most effectively done with handled carefully to prevent separation of the electronic color sorting, although size and density half kernels and breakage since splits and pieces separation may also be effective in removal of the are more susceptible to oxidative deterioration most susceptible underdeveloped seed. Peanuts will absorb lipophilic volatiles from their surroundings or from inappropriate packaging that can induce Quarantine Issues off favors. Interaction of curing phytoalexin production in pre-harvest afatoxin temperature and inherent maturity distribution in accumulation of drought-stressed peanuts. Occurrence of resveratrol in edible controlled atmosphere storage on afatoxin peanuts. Peanut moisture/size, relation to freeze damage and effect of drying temperature on volatiles. Some effects of conventional and low oxygen atmosphere storage and processing methods on Florunner peanut seed. Ethylene sensitivity in germinating peanut seeds: the effect of short-chain fatty acids. Maturation of Maness is with the Department of Horticulture fruit within a tree occurs nonuniformly and can be and Landscape Architecture, Oklahoma State infuenced by cultivar and weather conditions. Grades, Sizes, and Packaging Scientifc Name and Introduction In-shell and shelled grades exist and are primarily Carya illinoinsis L. Quality Characteristics and Criteria When the color of kernels in a lot conforms to the "light" or "light amber" classifcation, these Pecan kernels should be yellow-golden to light color designations may be used to describe the lot brown in color, be of roughly equal width from in connection with the grade. Size classifcations one end to the other, and be free of any shell or for halves are based on number of halves per 0. Size classifcation for pieces are enhances cracking of the testa, which increases O2 based on the maximum and minimum round permeation of the nutmeat, favoring rancidity. Oil diameter in inches through which the pieces will content of pecan kernels inversely affects shelf or will not pass and include Mammoth (>1. Retail Outlet Display Considerations Optimum Storage Conditions Use of packaging to reduce O2 concentration and Mechanically harvested in-shell pecans should be prevent excessive light exposure is recommended dried to 4. Pecans may be thawed and refrozen without damage, provided they are properly tempered. Storage at <2% O2 for 52 days development results in round or irregularly can cause a fruity favor to develop (Santerre et shaped black discoloration of the testa that is only al. Contamination of nutmeats may occur if shells are broken during harvest or if shells are not properly Opalescence, a condition characterized by sanitized by addition of chlorine to heated soak an opaque or oil-stained appearance of all or water just prior to cracking. Because of high a portion of the nutmeat, has been identifed amounts of organic material on the surface of and attributed to breakdown of oil bodies and pecan shells, chlorine should be monitored and subsequent leakage of oil within the cotyledon. Early fall freeze or potassium insuffciency may also increase prevalence of sticktights. Increased Postharvest Pathology temperature during handling can also enhance darkening and promote development of rancid the most common decay found in pecans is favor. Pecans will absorb lipophilic volatiles in caused by molds, with Penicillium and Aspergillus the environment that can introduce off favors. The Absorption of ammonia will cause darkening of intact shell provides some defense against mold. Mechanical fruit thinning infuences fruit quality, yield, return fruit set and cold injury of pecan. Summer and fall moisture stress and irrigation scheduling infuence pecan growth and production. Kernels are high in fat Scientifc Name and Introduction content (approximately 45% by weight) and crude protein (approximately 30%). This is roughly coincident plantings must include the appropriate ratio with the splitting of the shell. Shell split is not of females and males (8:1 in older plantings, visible due to the fact that the feshy mesocarp but up to 25:1 in more recently established masks the shell in developing nuts. At present the evidence of maturation can be seen in the color California industry is dominated by one male change of the hull (exocarp), which is green when cultivar (Peters) and one female (Kerman), the nut is not mature and then progresses through although other cultivars are being tested. Activity in reliance on single cultivars poses the potential the abscission zones between the nuts and the for catastrophic problems for the industry with rachis (assessed by a measurable decrease in pests and diseases, and efforts to evaluate existing "fruit removal force") also indicates maturation. The simultaneous splitting of caught on tarps or a catching frame and transferred shell and hull is generally caused by too tight an to bins in order to eliminate problems caused by adherence of the hull to the shell. Pistachios Hulls are removed, blanks are removed in a foat are considerably less prone to rancidifcation tank, and the in-shell nuts are dried to 5 to 7% (precipitated by oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty moisture. Vacuum packaging or N2 fushing of absence of shell pieces and free kernels, shells packages also provides benefts. Shell staining is usually caused by dehiscence of the hull along its suture at the same time as Ethylene Production and Sensitivity the shell within is splitting. This premature hull dehiscence increases "early" problems with Pistachio production of ethylene is very low. The Physiological Disorders navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella Walker), a primary feld pest, is the major insect problem Rancidifcation and shell staining have been after harvest. Projections indicate of hull split as nuts reach full maturity can that survival of navel orangeworms is insuffcient cause substantial yield losses. Several fungi are capable of infecting growing Blank nuts result when the embryo fails to pistachio nuts and causing damage to hulls and develop. Blank development also a number of hemipteran insects that feed on the occurs later in the season and has been explained nuts and serve as nonspecifc vectors for diseases. The danger much higher in "on" years, and this has a large is particularly serious because these fungi can effect on assimilate partitioning. As with many disease problems of pistachio, vectoring by insects attracted to early split nuts (such as navel orangeworm) is an important contributing factor. In Doster and Michaelides (1994) study of Aspergillus molds 774 in California pistachios, early split nuts had Ferguson, L. Fatty acid oxidation of pistachio nuts stored under various atmospheric conditions and different temperatures. If water content drops too low, however, damage to the kernels covering can enhance O2 penetration and rancidity.

Compatibility chart for fruits and vegetables in short-term transport and storage anxiety symptoms zenkers diverticulum phenergan 25mg overnight delivery. The distribution center assembles pallets of mixed products to be shipped to retail outlets anxiety poems effective 25mg phenergan. Keeping cold commodities at warmer temperatures for more than a few minutes can result in water Introduction condensation on the commodity anxiety symptoms for years buy generic phenergan line, which may encourage the growth of decay-producing Fresh produce received at the grocery store is kept pathogens anxiety symptoms weakness buy discount phenergan 25mg online. Good air circulation within to a few days before purchase by consumers or the storage room is essential to maintain proper removal by produce personnel anxiety symptoms eye twitching phenergan 25 mg without a prescription. Thus anxiety urination order phenergan 25 mg on line, space for the key factors in maintaining quality are careful air movement should be kept around stacks or handling to minimize mechanical injuries, storage pallets of boxes and between them and the room and display within optimum ranges of temperature walls. Display Fixtures Storage Room Most produce items in groups 1 and 2 should be the number and size of storage rooms depend displayed in refrigerated display cases. If three rooms are available some commodities, including produce that does for produce, they are best designated for short not lose water quickly and has a long shelf-life term storage of the three groups of fruits and like apple, pear, kiwifruit, and orange. Since display cases used for groups 1 and 2, while group 3 should usually do not have the refrigeration capacity to be kept in an air-conditioned area. Daniels, Audits International, personal should not obstruct the discharge air and return air communication, 1989). A survey of temperatures outlets to maintain good cold air circulation within of fresh-cut vegetable products kept in refrigerated the case. This indicates Refrigerated display cases have either a signifcant improvements in maintaining the horizontal or a vertical air fow system and either cold chain within the grocery stores, but more single-tier or multi-tier display shelves. Performance of refrigerated display cases is infuenced primarily by their Water-loss reduction can be achieved by refrigeration capacity, defrost options, and air protecting produce from excessive air movement; circulation system. Produce that beneft from misting while displayed in refrigerated cases Artichoke Corn, sweet Peppers Asparagus* Eggplant Radishes Beans, snap Endive Rhubarb Beets Kale Shallots, green Broccoli Leeks Spinach Brussels sprouts Lettuce Sprouts Cabbage Mustard greens Squash, summer Carrots Onions, green Swiss chard Caulifower Parsley Turnips Celery Parsnips Watercress Collards Peas *Asparagus should be displayed vertically with cut ends on a wet absorbent pad. From the for most group 3 fruits and vegetables, which Farm to Your Table, A Consumers Guide to Fresh should be displayed separately. Daylight simulating fuorescent bulbs can provide adequate lighting in the produce department without giving off heat. Maturity Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural at harvest and degree of ripeness are important Research Service, U. Low temperatures in transit, or even in the feld shortly Many fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals of before harvest, add to the total effects of chilling tropical or subtropical origin are sensitive to low that occur in cold storage. Various physiological and biochemical alterations and cellular dysfunctions Chilling injury is discussed more specifcally occur in chilling-sensitive species in response under each commodity. Many of the commodities to chilling stress (Wang 1982, Wang and Adams susceptible to chilling injury are listed in table 1982, Raison and Orr 1990). Fruits and vegetables that have been chilled may be particularly susceptible to decay. Some the recommended storage temperatures for commodities may be frozen and thawed a number commodities that are not susceptible to chilling of times with little or no injury, whereas others are injury are as low as possible but slightly above permanently injured by even a slight freezing. Freezing injury occurs fruits and vegetables can be categorized into three when ice crystals form in the tissues. Table 2 shows the relative susceptibility points and factors affecting them can be found of a number of fruits and vegetables to freezing in McColloch (1953), Whiteman (1957), and injury. Tissues injured by freezing generally lose rigidity and become mushy upon thawing. Susceptibility of fresh fruits and vegetables to freezing injury Most susceptible Moderately susceptible Least susceptible Apricots Apples Beets Asparagus Broccoli Brussels sprouts Avocados Carrots Cabbage, mature and savory Bananas Caulifower Dates Beans, snap Celery Kale Berries (except cranberries) Cranberries Kohlrabi Cucumbers Grapefruit Parsnips Eggplants Grapes Rutabagas Lemons Onion (dry) Salsify Lettuce Oranges Turnips Limes Parsley Okra Pears Peaches Peas Peppers, sweet Radishes Plums Spinach Potatoes Squash, winter Squash, summer Sweet potatoes Tomatoes 65 the freezing point of the commodity is no (Lutz 1936). Even though a number of fruits and indication of the damage to be expected by vegetables are somewhat tolerant to freezing, freezing. Chilling remain undercooled for several hours, but sensitivity of avocado fruit at different stages of they will usually start to freeze immediately if the respiratory climacteric. Physiological and biochemical Low temperature as a factor in the susceptibility responses of plants to chilling stress. Introduction In general, the storage life of commodities varies inversely with the rate of respiration. One of the most important of related to quality parameters such as frmness, these is respiratory metabolism. Energy produced by lettuce, peas, spinach, and sweet corn, all of which the series of reactions making up respiration can have high respiration rates, is short in comparison be captured as high-energy bonds in compounds to that of apples, cranberries, limes, onions, and used by the cell in subsequent reactions, or it can potatoes, all of which have low respiration rates be lost as heat. Heat produced during respiration is called "vital heat," and it contributes to the refrigeration load that must be considered in designing storage rooms. It becomes negative as the tissue nears its thermal death point, when metabolism these typical Q10 values allow us to construct a is disorderly and enzyme proteins are denatured. Continued exposure physiological changes in adjacent, non-wounded to high temperature results in phytotoxic tissue. The Ethylene stimulates respiration and stress-induced exact level of O2 that reduces respiration while ethylene may have many physiological effects on still permitting aerobic respiration varies among commodities besides stimulating respiration. At higher such as asparagus and broccoli have very high storage temperatures, the demand for adenosine respiration rates. Even mild physical stress can perturb respiration, while physical abuse can cause a substantial rise in respiration that is often associated with increased ethylene evolution. The signal produced by physical stress migrates from the site of injury and induces a wide range of 70 Signifcance of Respiration Shelf-life and respiration rate. See the section "Summary of Respiration and Ethylene Production Rates" in the Figure 1. However, some fruits, the tissue and loss of taste quality (especially kiwifruit and cucumber for example, appear sweetness) and food value to the consumer. The Feijoa Soursop Lemon percentage dry weight loss per hour would be Fig Tomato Lime 35 x 0. Postharvest Muskmelon Strawberry storage can be used either to prevent any Nectarine Tamarillo reduction in quality or to promote changes that increase quality. The quality of most vegetables (for example, cucumbers and lettuce) and nonclimacteric fruit (for example, strawberries) is maximal at harvest, and storage conditions are 71 optimized to prevent quality loss. In contrast, Some commodities have high respiration rates many fowers (for example, carnations and and require considerably more refrigeration than roses), nonclimacteric fruit (for example, more slowly respiring produce to keep them at a lemons and oranges), and climacteric fruit (for specifed temperature. They are loss Respiration and Ethylene Production Rates" in the of substrate (for example, glucose) loss of O2, Introduction of this Handbook. The one mole of glucose In the dynamic system a fow of air (or other (180 g) can come from stored simple sugars like gas mixture) is passed through the container glucose and sucrose or complex polysaccharides at a known rate. Biochemistry of Respiration There are three fates for the energy (686 kcal mol-1) released by aerobic respiration. Around 13 kcal is Respiration is the oxidative breakdown of lost due to the increase in entropy (disorder) when complex substrate molecules normally present in the complex glucose molecule is broken down plant cells, such as starches, sugars, and organic into simpler molecules. In metabolic reactions essential for the maintenance actuality, most energy is lost as heat since energy is of cellular organization and membrane integrity lost to heat every time energy is transferred during of living cells. For example, events a number of specifc enzymes that perform one of of senescence and ripening are often signaled by the following actions: add an energy-containing abrupt changes in respiration. Through a series of seven successive heat energy are produced in anaerobic respiration rearrangements, oxidations, and decarboxylations, (alcoholic fermentation) from each molecule of citric acid is converted back into oxaloacetate glucose. Concomitantly, there Electron transport system, which occurs on would be substantial accumulation of ethanol membranes in the mitochondria, involves and smaller amounts of acetaldehyde. Early wound and ethylene-induced changes in phenylpropanoid metabolism in harvested lettuce. For example, C2H4 analogs propylene (C3H6) and acetylene Introduction (C2H2) require 100 and 2,700-fold, respectively, the concentration of C2H4 to elicit the same effect. NegativeNegative feedbackfeedback Ethylene is biologically active at very low concentrations measured in the ppm and ppb range. Because it is a gas, C2H4 readily atmosphere surrounding tissues that respond with a positive diffuses from sites of production, and continuous (ethylene promotes its own synthesis) or negative (ethylene inhibits its own synthesis) feedback. Increased rates of C2H4 production are especially pronounced during the ripening of climacteric fruit such as apples, avocados, bananas, 77 melons, pears, and tomatoes. In these fruit, the Ethylene Interactions in Plants autocatalytic production of C2H4 heralds the onset of ripening and is required for many of the There are some signifcant interactions between reactions associated with ripening to continue. Once autocatalytic C H production has started Ethylene in the atmosphere can have a direct 2 4 in climacteric fruit, lowering its external effect on plant tissue by raising the internal concentration has an insignifcant effect on its concentration to an active level. Controlling its effectiveness can intentionally added to the plants environment mean either increasing its benefcial effects or to stimulate desirable changes. The Increasing Effectiveness of Ethylene response of plants to C2H4, therefore, depends on Use C2H4-sensitive cultivars a number of factors, only one of which is the rate Keep an active level of C2H4 in the air of C2H4 production by the plant. Allow suffcient time for plant response 78 Prior and current stresses have a signifcant effect Controlling Ethylene Action on modulating the effect of C2H4. Some of from being exposed to biologically active levels these responses involve C2H4, while others do not. Immature climacteric fruit Preventing Exposure to Ethylene respond to C2H4 with increased respiration and reduced C2H4 production. An effective concentration of C2H4 a problem in the feld because the levels of C2H4 should be maintained around the tissue for a found even in polluted air rarely reach biologically suffcient time to elicit the full response. However, in greenhouses, cold since the response to C2H4 is log-linear (a log storage rooms, and transportation vehicles, C2H4 increase in C2H4 concentration results in a linear can frequently accumulate to reach biologically increase in the response), there is an extremely active levels. Ethephon and similar C2H4-releasing chemicals permit the commercial application of With proper ventilation of enclosed spaces and C2H4 in the feld. For example, ripening promoted by C H 2 4 2 4 inhibitors can also be used that directly interfere often entails tissue softening that signifcantly with the perception event. Ethylene also promotes phenylpropanoid dipped or fed a nonvolatile inhibitor such as silver metabolism in many tissues that use stress thiosulfate, but this treatment is limited to nonfood produced C2H4 as a signal to induce defense crops. However, effective methods to do this will require a far greater understanding of the signal pathway than is currently available. Judicious maintenance of proper ripening environments will ensure production the quality of some fruits is increased when they of high-quality fruit. The "shot" method introduces a relative large Ethylene can be both benefcial and detrimental amount of gaseous C2H4 into a ripening room by to horticultural crops in storage. They deliver a continuous fow of low C2H4 into Simple methods like ventilation and temperature the storage room. While stable at acidic pH, Ethrel of specifc induced enzymes to provide conditions quickly breaks down to C2H4 as temperature and that optimize both storage life and product quality. Loss of water by the crop will be increased by the rise in respiratory heat Kader, A. It is inhibit ethylene perception by competitively registered for use on a wide variety of fruits and binding to ethylene receptors represented a major vegetables including apple, apricot, Asian pear, breakthrough in controlling ethylene responses avocado, banana, broccoli, calabrese, caulifower, of horticultural products (Blankenship and Dole Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrot, cherimoya, 2003). The process of discovery of the effects cucumber, date, guava, kiwifruit, lime, mango, of cyclopropenes and their proposed method of melon, nectarine, papaya, paprika, peach, pear, action has been described (Sisler and Serek 2003, pepper, persimmon, pineapple, plantain, plum, Sisler 2006). Examples concentration, depending on the responsiveness of include russet spotting of lettuce and the product to the molecule. The include senescent breakdown of apples range of responses refects the enormous diversity (Moran and McManus 2005), senescent of these crops in terms of both inherent diversity scald and breakdown of pears (Ekman et and morphological derivation (Huber 2008). Reduction of ethylene-induced physiological disorders of carrots and iceberg lettuce by Liu, Z. Effect of ethylene on quality 1-methylcyclopropene for alleviating chilling of fresh fruits and vegetables. The discovery and development biosynthesis and perception in the susceptibility of of compounds counteracting ethylene at the citrus fruits to Penicillium digitatum infection and receptor level. Wallace Beltsville plus the inherent variability among individual Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural units of the commodity make the assessment of Research Service, U. Albert Research Centre, Horticulture and often relevant only at the time of evaluation; that Food Research Institute of New Zealand Ltd. Introduction Physiological Basis of Texture Texture is a quality attribute critical in determining the acceptability of fruits and vegetables. On the other hand, it is important to sensory perception of that food in the hand or measure the strength of fbers when determining mouth. Though some defnitions of texture are toughness, such as in asparagus spears and restricted to only sensory attributes or to sensory broccoli stalks.

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The flight surgeons responsibility is to analyze the human factors leading to the mishap and those affecting the aircrew during the egress anxiety symptoms 4-6 order phenergan 25mg with amex, survival anxiety meme buy phenergan 25 mg on line, and rescue phases following the mishap anxiety symptoms in teens cheap phenergan 25mg visa. The flight surgeon assumes the role of case manager anxiety drugs purchase phenergan 25mg online, and will consult with the other board members as the investigation progresses anxiety symptoms unsteadiness best phenergan 25 mg. Because in many ways he is the most independent member of the board anxiety quitting smoking buy 25 mg phenergan overnight delivery, the flight surgeon often plays this role in group discussions. A thorough and comprehensive investigation frequently requires the consulting services of other specialized personnel, such as technical representatives from aircraft companies. Investigators tend to want to find "the cause" of a mishap if only it were that simple. Mishaps rarely happen because of a single act or omission or because of a single mechanical failure. Most mishaps result from a mosaic of cause factors that blend to form a tragic picture. All pieces of the mosaic, that is all cause factors, play equal roles in causing a particular mishap. Without any one of them the picture would be incomplete and there would be no mishap. For exam ple, it is not wind shear that is the hazard but rather our inability to anticipate, detect or respond to it. Privilege All naval aircraft mishap investigations are conducted solely for safety purposes. The success of the Naval Aviation Safety Program depends on complete, open, and forthright information and opinions. Naval Flight Surgeons Manual Privileged information is information provided under a promise of confidentiality, or informa tion which would not have been discovered but for information provided under a promise of con fidentiality. Information is designated as privileged to overcome any reluctance on the part of mishap participants, witnesses, in vestigators, and endorsers to reveal complete and candid information, opinions and recommen dations about a mishap. Premishap Preparation As naval aviation has improved, mishaps have become less frequent (Table 23-1). However, this success is naturally accompanied by an overall reduction in the level of experience of those in vestigating mishaps. Developing and maintaining sharp investigative skills therefore becomes pro gressively more difficult. With the rapid sequence of events following a mishap, committing er rors that are due simply to a lack of experience can become more common. Consequently, preparedness becomes increasingly important if we are to continue to make progress in eliminating mishaps. Fortunately, there are many things a flight surgeon can do to avoid the pit falls encountered in these frequently chaotic situations. A working knowledge of the program, its definitions and terminology is invaluable. The flight surgeon must have a thorough understanding of the mishap response plans and capabilities of his local medical facility, squadron and air station. As part of his premishap planning the flight surgeon should: 23-8 Aircraft Mishap Investigation 1. Be thoroughly familiar with the aircraft, life-support systems, mission, and fellow members of his squadron. Be thoroughly familiar with his squadron premishap plan; he must ensure that the medical portion is adequate. Periodically review the local medical facilitys mass casualty and premishap plans to en sure their adequacy and see that they are tested with regular drills. Ensure that the local lab is prepared to process post-mishap lab sample collection effi ciently. Identify local key personnel (such as an aeromedical safety officer) and have their phone numbers at hand. Identify the local coroner or medical examiner, determine jurisdiction of remains in the local area, and have on file important phone numbers and letters of agreement concerning jurisdiction. Identify the nearest trauma and burn center, hyperbaric chamber, and backup facilities. Ensure that coordination with both military and civilian medical, fire, rescue, and securi ty staff is adequate. Ensure the adequacy of the aeromedical mishap investigation kit (see discussion of mishap kit below). Naval Flight Surgeons Manual Under the leadership of the squadron safety officer, the board members should meet periodically to conduct training, review policies, and update procedures. The flight surgeon should establish a working rela tionship, based on premishap agreement, with the local coroner or medical examiner. Premishap training should include all pertinent medical staff members such as aviation corps men, emergency room staff, and watch standers. They should have checklists that will help them respond without undue disorganization and possible loss of evidence. A well-stocked and organized aeromedical mishap response kit can save time, reduce confusion, and help preserve evidence. Mishap investigation kits should be compact, portable (fit in a briefcase, backpack, or field medical pack), and ready for immediate use. The Mishap Investigation Once a mishap has occurred, the flight surgeon will find many duties thrust upon him; some require immediate attention, others may be delayed. Physical exams should be made of all survivors with supplemental laboratory and radiological studies as indicated. Sometimes, initially it seems pointless to draw the required postmishap specimens. However, keep in mind that blood and urine collected late is of little or no value to the investigation. The flight surgeon should interview and tape statements from each member of the aircrew and possibly others (for example, passengers, air traffic controllers, or plane captains) re counting the mishap from, at least, brief to rescue. Each aircrew member should be instructed to com plete a chronological account of his activities for the 72 hours before the mishap. The flight surgeon should impound medical and dental records as well as flight equipment. Notifying the next of kin is the responsibility of the commanding officer; however, a flight surgeon usually ac companies him. The triage, initial treatment, movement, and evacuation of casualties under the supervision of the flight surgeon then takes place. There is no easier or more economical way to illustrate, record, or verify evidence, particularly perishable evidence. The rela tionships of the aircraft wreckage and bodily remains at the mishap site should be documented before anything is moved. There is an initial, and very understandable, emotional response by the first people on the scene to do something about the body. It is quite difficult for most people to begin any systematic ex amination of the mishap while the deceased remains in the wreckage. Nevertheless, the body of the deceased should be covered and left where it is until photographs are taken. Depending upon local jurisdiction, it may be improper to move remains until they are evaluated by the local cor oner or medical examiner. The con trolled environment of a medical facility is the proper place to collect body fluids for lab studies. The flight surgeon should ensure that adequate refrigeration facilities are available. Dental and fingerprint com parisons must be made to help make positive identification of mishap victims. Full body radiographs of all deceased should be obtained both in and out of flight equipment with emphasis on hands, feet, head and neck. Radiographs often enable the investigator to determine who was operating the aircraft controls at the time of the mishap and estimate the magnitude and direction of impact forces. Naval Flight Surgeons Manual of their pathogenesis provide invaluable data for designers of protective clothing, equipment, and escape systems. Correlating injuries with damage to personal gear is an essential part of the in vestigation and can lead to design improvements. For example, an injury may have made egress impossible even though not in itself fatal. If a lab result is abnormal, the flight surgeon must determine whether or not the abnormality represents a mishap factor, and why. A chronological account of activities of the previous 72 hours should be constructed for all air crew. The flight surgeon must maintain close follow-up of those involved to monitor any changes in their medical condition and to obtain further elaboration on the mishap events. The interview ing of witnesses, survivors, friends, and colleagues should continue. The flight surgeon must remain sensitive to the psychological trauma a mishap may inflict, particularly among those participating in recovery of the remains. He should counsel them himself or refer them to other health care providers as appropriate. The Mishap Investigation Report the investigation of human factors issues is not necessarily limited to the aircrew. For example, a mishap can occur because of errors by air traffic controllers, maintenance personnel, or super visors. The possibilities must be considered and, if necessary, those noncrew members should be interviewed, have physical exams, and have toxicology or other lab tests conducted. Survivability considerations the flight surgeon must address include decelerative and impact forces, restraint systems function, the retention of occupiable space, the postcrash environment, egress system effectiveness, and other survival problems. The interview should preferably occur at the spot where the witness was at the time of the mishap to stimulate state-dependent memory. Witnesses are not to provide statements under oath; requiring them to do so is prohibited. Repeat interviews are always needed to confirm, clarify and elaborate concerns as the investigation matures. The first few days of an investigation should be devoted to gathering all possible information concerning the mishap as if no specific cause was suspected. Resist the inclination to gather infor mation to support initial impressions, thereby overlooking other important evidence. Getting a handle on the tremendous amounts of data that a mishap investigation generates can be quite a challenge to all board members. There is, however, a device to help you organize information during the early phases of the investigation: categorize data and presumed causal factors into one of "5 Ms": Man Machine (aircraft) Manuals Media (environment) Mission. Another way to help organize this information is to envision the mishap as the last in a series of domino-like events and work back one event at a time, trying to arrive at the most basic causes. As in medicine, an unsupported diagnosis itself is not only inadequate but dangerous. Similarly, in aircraft mishaps, the entire story must be presented in an effective manner. Paragraph 11 is the analysis section and presents the thought process of the board. Cause factors of the mishap and cause factors of damage and in jury occurring in the course of the mishap are listed. Paragraph 12 is essentially a listing of all the accepted cause factors from paragraph 11. Every conclusion in paragraph 12 should lead to at least one recommendation in paragraph 13. Each recommendation should state who should do exactly what and, ideally, how and when. The board should make specific and definitive recom mendations to prevent a similar mishap and its associated damage and injury from happening again. They serve as a ready source of informa tion for input to the Naval Safety Center data bank. They are important for research and trend 23-16 Aircraft Mishap Investigation analyses. Some of these forms are clearly medical in nature, requiring the flight surgeon to lead the work on them. It is a report by the flight surgeon, documenting pertinent aeromedical conditions, and discussing the causes of the mishap and associated damage and injury. Although primarily concern ed with medical, physiological, behavioral, psychological, and social factors, in addition to the escape, survival and rescue of the individual, the flight surgeons investigation and the aeromedical analysis are not limited to those aspects of the mishap. The collection and analysis of medical and human factors evidence must be coordinated with all other aspects of the investiga tion. The review should look at events or factors from before and after the mishap, with a wide enough scope to include all of the causal factors of the mishap and all the causal fac tors of damage and injury that occurred in the course of the mishap. Thus, this section may begin with a discussion of a pilots preexisting medical condition which may predate the mishap by years. The review should not end without detailing the egress, rescue, and medevac phases, and describing when and how the survivors came under appropriate medical care. The review should include a brief medical and psychological profile of each person involved. The flight surgeon may review sensitive, personal, and speculative topics in this section. Naval Flight Surgeons Manual one who is not intimate with medicine or the mishap aircraft community.

When the death rate coe cient 0 0 d(a) is constant anxiety symptoms 3-4 generic phenergan 25 mg with amex, then w(a)=e da and the mean lifetime L is 1/d anxiety yeast infection buy phenergan in india. This demographic model with age groups has been developed from the initial boundary value problem in the previous section for use in age-structured epidemiologic models for pertussis [105] anxiety symptoms eye pressure discount phenergan online mastercard. A maximum age is not assumed anxiety symptoms keyed up phenergan 25mg sale, so the last age interval [an 1 anxiety symptoms of flu order phenergan from india, ) corresponds to all people over age an 1 anxiety worse in morning phenergan 25 mg generic. For a [ai 1,ai], assume that the death rates and fertilities are constant with d (a)=di and f(a)=fi. We also assume that the population has reached an equilibrium age distribution with exponential growth in the form U(a, t)=eqtA(a) given by (4. If the population reproduction number Rpop is less than, equal to , or greater than 1, then the q solution of (4. As in the continuous demographic model, it is assumed that the population starts at a steady state age distribution with total size 1 at time 0, so that the group sizes Pi remain xed and add up to 1. See [105] for more details on the derivation of this demographic model for age groups. For many endemic mod els the basic reproduction number can be determined analytically by either of two methods. One method is to nd the threshold condition above which a positive (en demic) equilibrium exists for the model and to interpret this threshold condition as R0 > 1. The second method is to do a local stability analysis of the disease-free equi librium and to interpret the threshold condition at which this equilibrium switches from asymptotic stability to instability as R0 > 1. Here we use the appearance of an endemic steady state age distribution to identify expressions for the basic reproduction number R0, and then show that the disease-free steady state is globally asymptotically stable if and only if R0 1. The age distributions of the numbers in the classes are denoted by M(a, t), S(a, t), E(a, t), I(a, t), and R(a, t), where a is age and t is time, so that, for example, the number of susceptible individuals at time t in the age interval [a1,a2] is the integral of S(a, t) from a1 to a2. Because informa tion on age-related fertilities and death rates is available for most countries and because mixing is generally heterogeneous, epidemiology models with age groups are now used frequently when analyzing speci c diseases. However, special cases with homogeneous mixing and asymptotic age distributions that are a negative ex ponential or a step function are considered in sections 5. For example, the negative exponential age distribution is used for measles in Niger in section 7. Here it is assumed that the contact rate be tween people of age a and age a is separable in the form b(a) b(a), so that the force of infection is the integral over all ages of the contact rate times the infectious fraction I(a, t)/ 0 U(a, t)da at time t. The division by the total population size 0 U(a, t)da makes the contact rate (a, t) independent of the population size, so the contact number is independent of the population size [57, 97, 102, 159]. One example of separable mixing is proportionate mixing, in which the contacts of a person of age a are distributed over those of other ages in proportion to the ac tivity levels of the other ages [103, 174]. If l(a) is the average number of people contacted by a person of age a per unit time, u(a) is the steady state age distribu tion for the population, and D = 0 l(a)u(a)da is the total number of contacts per unit time of all people, then b(a)=l(a)/D1/2 and b(a)=l(a)/D1/2. An other example of separable mixing is age-independent mixing given by b(a)=1and b(a)=. Thus the boundary conditions at age 0 are M(0,t)= f(a)[M + E + I + R]da, 0 S(0,t)= f(a)Sda, 0 while the other distributions at age 0 are zero. For each age a the fractional age distributions of the population in the epidemi ological classes at time t are m(a, t)=M(a, t)/U(a, t), s(a, t)=S(a, t)/U(a, t), etc. Because the numerators and denominator contain the asymptotic growth factor eqt, these fractional distributions do not grow exponentially. Determining the local stability of the disease-free steady state (at which = kb(a)=0ands = 1) by linearization is possible following the method in [40], but we can construct a Liapunov function to show the global stability of the disease-free steady state when R0 1. Consider the Liapunov function V = [ (a)e(a, t)+ (a)i(a, t)]da, 0 where the positive, bounded functions (a) and (a) are to be determined. The formal Liapunov derivative is V = { (a)[ s e e/ a]+ (a)[ e i i/ a]}da 0 = { s (a)+e[ (a) (a)+ (a)]+[ (a) (a)]i}da. Then a z D(a) qa V = sb(a) e e (z)dzda b(a)i e da + [ ]ida. Then a z D(x) qx x V = sb(a) e e b(x) e dxdzda 1 0 a z D(a) qa b(a)i(a, t) e da. The set with V = 0 is the boundary of the feasible region with i = 0, but di(a(t),t)/dt = e on this boundary, so that i moves o this boundary unless e =0. Thus the disease-free steady state is the only positively invariant subset of the set with V = 0. If there is a nite maximum age (so that all forward paths have compact closure), then either Corollary 2. If R > 1, then we have V> 0 for points su ciently close to the disease-free 0 steady state with s close to 1 and i>0 for some age, so that the disease-free steady state is unstable. Although the endemic steady state would usually be stable, this may not be true in unusual cases. For example, in preferred mixing, certain age groups are more likely to mix with their own age group [103]. For more general mixing, the endemic steady state might not be unique, but some conditions that guarantee existence, uniqueness, and local stability have been given [53, 125]. Although the steady state age distribution of the population is D(a) qa D(a) D(a) e, the age distribution for a speci c birth cohort is e / 0 e da. Thus the rate at which individuals in a birth cohort leave the susceptible class due to D(a) D(a) an infection is (a)s(a)e / 0 e da, where s(a) is given in (5. Hence the expected age A for leaving the susceptible class is a a (a)e D(a)[ F e (a) + (1 F) e x (a)+ (x)dx]da 0 0 (5. When the death rate coe cient d(a) is independent of the age a, the age distribution (4. Also, the waiting times in M, E, and I have negative exponential distributions, so that, after adjusting for changes in the popu lation size, the average period of passive immunity, the average latent period, and the average infectious period are 1/(+ d + q), 1/(+ d + q), and 1/(+ d + q), respectively. Here it is also assumed that the contact rate is independent of the ages of the infectives and susceptibles, so we let b(a)=1and b(a)=. Thus the infective replacement number R0s is 1 at the endemic equilibrium for this model. However, this is generally not true, so it is not valid to use R0 =1/s to derive an expression for the basic reproduction number. Thus the rate that individuals in a birth cohort leave the susceptible class due to an infection is s(a)de da, where s(a) is given in (5. Here the equation for the expected age A for leaving the susceptible class is s0 (1 s0) d a[c e (+d)a + c e (+d)a]da 2 2 0 1 2 (+ d) (+ d) (5. But the death factor really should be included, since we want to calculate the average age for those who survive long enough to become infected. In the limiting situation every newborn infant has passive immunity, so that m0 > 1 and s0 > 0. Note that the formula for is for an endemic steady state for a virulent disease, so it does not imply that R0 /(+ d + q) > 1 is the threshold condition for existence of a positive endemic steady state age distribution; compare with [12, p. Thus for a very virulent disease, adding a passively immune class to a model increases the average age of attack by the mean period of passive immunity. Solving for R0 in terms of the average period p of passive immunity and the average lifetime L =1/d, we obtain [q +1/(A p)](1 + pq) (5. In epidemiological terminology, g is the product of the fraction vaccinated and the vaccine e cacy. This vaccination at age Av causes a jump discontinuity in the sus ceptible age distribution given by s(Av +0)=(1 g)s(Av 0), where s(Av 0) is the limit from the left and s(Av + 0) is the limit from the right. The details are omitted, but sub stituting the steady state solutions i(a) on these intervals into the expression for yields R0(d + q) (1 s0) (+d+q)Av (+d+q)Av (5. Given g, Av, and the values for the parameters, d, and q, the equations (5. Recall that a population has herd immunity if a large enough fraction is immune, so that the disease would not spread if an outside infective were introduced into the population. To determine this threshold we consider the situation when the disease is at a very low level with nearly zero, so that almost no one is infected. Thus the initial passively immune fraction m0 is very small and the initial susceptible fraction s0 is nearly 1. If the successfully vaccinated fraction g at age A is large 0 v enough so that (d+q)Av (5. A similar criterion for herd immunity with vaccination at two ages in a constant population is given in [98]. Intuitively, there are so many immunes that the average infective cannot replace itself with at least one new infective during the infectious period and, consequently, the disease dies out. If the inequality above is not satis ed and there are some infecteds initially, then we expect the susceptible fraction to approach the stable age distribution given by the jump solution with a positive, constant that satis es (5. The negative signs in the expression for A make it seem as if A is a decreasing function of the successfully vaccinated fraction g, but this is not true since the force of infection is a decreasing function of g. For the demo graphic model in which everyone survives until age L and then dies, d(a) is zero until age L and in nite after age L, so that D(a) is zero until age L and is in nite after age L. Expressions similar to those in this section can be found for a nonconstant population with = q/(1 e qL), but they are not presented here. Typically the lifetime L is larger than the average age of attack A 1/, and both are much larger than the average latent period 1/ and the average infectious period 1/. Thus for typical directly transmitted diseases, L is larger than 5 and L, L, /, and / are larger than 50. Hence many of the formulas for 0 0 Type I mortality in the Anderson and May book [12, Ch. In sections 7 and 8 we estimate the basic reproduction number in models with age groups for measles in Niger and pertussis in the United States. The initial boundary value problem for this model is given below: S/ a + S/ t = (a, t)S d(a)S, (a, t)= b(a) b(a)I(a, t)da U(a, t)da, 0 0 (6. The boundary values at age 0 are all zero except for the births given by S(0,t)= 0 f(a)U(a, t)da. The population is partitioned into n age groups as in the demographic model in section 4. The subscripts i denote the parts of the epidemiologic classes in the ith ai age interval [ai 1,ai], so that Si(t)= a S(a, t)da, etc. The total in the four epidemiologic classes for the ith age group is the size N (t)=eqtP of i i the ith group, which is growing exponentially, but the age distribution P1,P2. Because the numbers are all growing exponentially by eqt, the fractions of the population in the epidemiologic classes are of more interest than the numbers in these epidemiologic classes. Here we follow the same procedure used in the continuous model to nd an expression for the basic re production number R0. When the expressions for ei and ii 1 are substituted into the expression for i in (6. Now the expressions for i and = kb can be substituted into this j=1 j j i i i last summation to obtain n j bj bj 1 b1 (6. Here the feasible region is the subset of the nonnegative orthant in the 4n-dimensional space with the class fractions in the ith group summing to Pi. In the Liapunov derivative V, choose the coe cients so that the e terms cancel out by letting i i n = n n/ n and j 1 =(j 1 j 1 + cj 1 j)/ j 1 for n 1. Using s P, n n n j 1 j 1 j j 1 j 1 n 1 1 i i we obtain V (R 1) b i 0ifR 1. The set where V = 0 is the boundary of 0 j j 0 the feasible region with ij = 0 for every j, but dij/dt = jej on this boundary, so that ij moves o this boundary unless ej = 0. Thus if R0 1, then the disease free equilibrium is asymptotically stable in the feasible region. If R0 > 1, then we have V> 0 for points su ciently close to the disease-free equilibrium with s close to P and i i ij > 0 for some j, so that the disease-free equilibrium is unstable. A deterministic compartmental mathemati cal model has been developed for the study of the e ects of heterogeneous mixing and vaccination distribution on disease transmission in Africa [133]. This study focuses on vaccination against measles in the city of Naimey, Niger, in sub-Saharan Africa. The rapidly growing population consists of a majority group with low transmission rates and a minority group of seasonal urban migrants with higher transmission rates. De mographic and measles epidemiological parameters are estimated from data on Niger. The fertility rates and the death rates in the 16 age groups are obtained from Niger census data. From measles data, it is estimated that the average period of passive immunity 1/ is 6 months, the average latent period 1/ is 14 days and the average infectious period 1/ is 7 days. From data on a 1995 measles outbreak in Niamey, the force of infection is estimated to be the constant 0. A computer calculation using the demographic and epidemiological parameter values in the formula (6. Recall from section 1 that the replacement number R is the actual number of new cases per infective during the infectious period. R can be approximated by computing the sum over all age groups of the daily incidence times the average infectious period times the fraction surviving the latent period, and then dividing by the total number of infectives in all age groups, so that 16 1 j=1 jsjPj + dj + q + dj + q R =. This contact number is approximated by computing the product of the sum of the daily incidences when all contacts are assumed to be with susceptibles times the average infectious period, and dividing by the total number of infectives.